Journal Article Source: Motivation and Emotion, Vol 28(4), Dec 2004. pp. 363-383.

Journal Article Title: Olfaction, Emotion and Associative Learning: Effects on Motivated Behavior.

Author(s):Herz, Rachel S., Department of Psychology, Brown University, Providence, RI, US, Co-authors: Schankler, Corrente, Beland, Sophia,

Journal Article Abstract:

Two experiments were conducted to investigate emotional associative learning to odors and subsequent behavioral effects. In Experiment 1, participants experienced a frustration mood induction in the presence of an unfamiliar ambient odor and later worked on puzzle tests in a room scented with either the same odor, a different-odor, or no-odor. Participants in the same-odor condition spent significantly less time working on the tests than participants in the other conditions; however, test accuracy did not vary. To clarify the findings, Experiment 2 included a test-only control and an emotionally neutral same-odor conditions. Results were compatible with the conclusion that decreased time spent by participants in the negative-same-odor condition was due to emotions elicited by associative learning to the ambient odor, although alternative interpretations remain possible. These data extend our previous results with children and suggest that odors readily become associated to emotions and can thereby influence behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved)(from the journal abstract)

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Journal Article Source: Developmental Psychobiology, Vol 35(2), Sep 1999. pp. 103-107.

Journal Article Title: Ambient odors associated to failure influence cognitive performance in children.

Author(s):Epple, Gisela, Herz, Rachel S.

Journal Article Abstract:

We investigated whether odors can become conditioned to emotionally salient experiences such that when later encountered they influence performance consistent with a previously associated event. To test this hypothesis, 48 5-yr-olds were given the experience of failure/frustration on a cognitive maze in a room scented with fragrance and later given another cognitively challenging test in a different room scented with either the same odor, a different odor, or no odor. Results reveal that Ss who performed the test in the presence of the same odor as the maze task did significantly worse than Ss in any other group. Performance in the different odor and the no odor groups were equivalent. Facial expressions and verbal remarks made during the maze task indicated a predominant display of negative affect. These findings show that odors can become conditioned to experiential states and when later encountered have directional influences on behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved)

Journal Source: Perceptual & Motor Skills. 2003 Dec;97(3 Pt 1):1007-10.

Journal Article Title: Improved performance on clerical tasks associated with administration of peppermint odor.

Authors: Barker S, Grayhem P, Koon J, Perkins J, Whalen A, Raudenbush B.

Wheeling Jesuit University, WV, USA.

Journal Article Abstract:

Previous research indicates the presence of certain odors is associated with enhanced task performance. The present study investigated use of peppermint odor during typing performance, memorization, and alphabetization. Participants completed the protocol twice--once with peppermint odor present and once without. Analysis indicated significant differences in the gross speed, net speed, and accuracy on the typing task, with odor associated with improved performance. Alphabetization also improved significantly under the odor condition but not typing duration or memorization. These results suggest peppermint odor may promote a general arousal of attention, so participants stay focused on their task and increase performance.

PMID: 14738372 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

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Journal Source: Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, Vol 23(2), Jun 2001. pp. 156-160.

Journal Article Title: Enhancing athletic performance through the administration of peppermint odor.

Author(s):Raudenbush, Bryan, Wheeling Jesuit U, Dept of Psychology, Wheeling, WV , US; Co-authors: Corley, Nathan, Eppich, William.

Journal Article Abstract:

Assessed how the administration of peppermint odor affects actual athletic task performance. 40 athletes (mean age 20 yrs) selected from a variety of intercollegiate sports teams undertook a series of physical tasks under conditions of no-odor or peppermint odor. The peppermint odor condition resulted in increases in running speed, hand grip strength, and number of push-ups, but had no effect on skill related tasks such as basketball free-throw shots. It is concluded that the implications are salient in regard to enhancing athletic performance using a nonpharmacological aid and as an adjunct to athletic training and physical therapy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved)

Journal Source: Physiology & Behavior. 2005 Sep 15;86(1-2):92-95.

Journal Article Title: Ambient odors of orange and lavender reduce anxiety and improve mood in a dental office.

Authors: Lehrner J, Marwinski G, Lehr S, Johren P, Deecke L.

University Clinic of Neurology, Medical University of Vienna, Austria.

Journal Article Abstract:

The goal of this study was to investigate the impact of the essential oils of orange and lavender on anxiety, mood, alertness and calmness in dental patients. Two hundred patients between the ages of 18 and 77 years (half women, half men) were assigned to one of four independent groups. While waiting for dental procedures patients were either stimulated with ambient odor of orange or ambient odor of lavender. These conditions were compared to a music condition and a control condition (no odor, no music). Anxiety, mood, alertness and calmness were assessed while patients waited for dental treatment. Statistical analyses revealed that compared to control condition both ambient odors of orange and lavender reduced anxiety and improved mood in patients waiting for dental treatment. These findings support the previous opinion that odors are capable of altering emotional states and may indicate that the use of odors is helpful in reducing anxiety in dental patients.

PMID: 16095639 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

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Journal Article Source: Physiology & Behavior. 2000 Oct 1-15;71(1-2):83-86

Journal Article Title: Ambient odor of orange in a dental office reduces anxiety and improves mood in female patients.

Authors: Lehrner J, Eckersberger C, Walla P, Potsch G, Deecke L.

Neurological Clinic, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.

Journal Article Abstract:

Essential oils have been used as remedies for a long time in different cultures across the world. However, scientific proof of such application is scarce. We included 72 patients between the ages of 22 and 57 while waiting for dental treatment in our study. The participants were assigned to either a control group (14 men, 23 women) or to an odor group (18 men and 17 women). Ambient odor of orange was diffused in the waiting room through an electrical dispenser in the odor group whereas in the control group no odor was in the air. We assessed by means of self-report demographic and cognitive variables, trait and state anxiety, and current pain, mood, alertness, and calmness. In this study, we report that exposure to ambient odor of orange has a relaxant effect. Specifically, compared to the controls, women who were exposed to orange odor had a lower level of state anxiety, a more positive mood, and a higher level of calmness. Our data support the previous notion of sedative properties of the natural essential oil of orange (Citrus sinensis).

PMID: 11134689 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

Catherine Collins: Proceedings of the 13^th Annual International Congress of Dietetics, Edinburgh, 2000.

http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/848621.stm
http://www.abc.net.au/science/news/stories/s155884.htm
http://psychologytoday.com/articles/pto-20001101-000027.html